'Mistress'

Mrs. Beeton's Book of Household Management: Commanding an Army

The term ‘mistress’ is used frequently when referring to the reader as the book is mainly to advise young women, mistresses, how to run a household. The term ‘mistress’ however has a range of connotations; the use of the word has changed over time. For example The Oxford English Dictionary’s earliest citations for mistress are from the fourteenth century when it meant ‘a woman having control or authority’. The idea of ‘mistress’ having dominant connotations originates from the Latin term ‘Domina’ which means ‘female master’. You could argue that the term ‘mistress’ has experienced pejoration as instead of representing a female who is powerful and dominant, it is often now used to identify a ‘lover’ or ‘sweetheart’ which if often associated with negative concepts such as a mistress is often used to describe a relatively long-term female lover who is not married to her partner, especially when her partner is married. As the book was written in 1861 it is evident that the term ‘mistress’ was used in a positive way as it links to its original connotations of being an independent female and therefore ‘commanding an army’ in relation to running a household.

Analysis Paragraph

Face saving acts. According to Brown and Levinson, as a politician, Obama has face needs, as president he is obligated to ensure he defuses and addresses tensions rather than intensify them. He also has to ensure he resolves any Face threatening acts. These may include and situations in which the American public way be in general panic, or other countries or leaders challenging his ability or power, these are face threatening acts as the affect his reputation and consequently his career. When addressing terrorism (Obama ISIS), a controversial and extremely sensitive issue, it acts as a face threatening act as it challenges his ability to protect the country. As well as being assertive when responding to security threats, it is essential that he doesn’t isolate groups of society in a negative light. This is demonstrated as he avoids the face threatening act of insulting Islam or targeting American Muslims, by stating that ‘ISIL is not Islamic’ and openly refuting the likely assumption that ISIL as an Islamic organisation Face saving acts are also used through examples of’ unspeak’[1]. by using terms like ‘American service members’ he avoids the term ‘soldier’ which may associate with the idea of violence.  According to Brown and Levinson this could be an off record, indirect politeness strategy as he doesn’t directly suggest violence/ military action, even though it’s likely. As the President, it is essential to avoid causing concerns of another war. This is a face saving act as he reminds the public the America will not get directly involved ‘this is not our fight alone… we cannot do for the Iraqis what they must do for themselves’.  However he also suggests that there is a possibility of further involvement ‘if left unchecked, these terrorists could pose a growing threat beyond that region’. This is a subtly way of preventing false hope, this is a face saving act as it gives weight to his statement of having limited involvement as well as reinforcing the idea that America will be protected. Throughout Obama ISIS, Influential Power is used as he attempts to persuade the public to agree and support his decision rather than forcing it upon them. This can be viewed as a politeness strategy as well as a face saving act as he avoids being overpowering by explaining his decision rather than simply stating it. Face threatening acts can consist of situations where, America as a nation, is in danger as it is Obamas responsibility to improve conditions rather than jeopardise them. By using face saving acts (politeness strategies) and ‘unspeak’ he makes sure he maintains his reputation by reassuring the public that there is no need to worry, even if there is. This supports my hypothesis as Brown and Levinsons theory of Face saving needs and politeness strategies are apparent, this is influenced by the subject of the speech as it is clearly a sensitive yet serious issue. 

---

[1] ‘Unspeak’: language selected for its favourable connotations and make determined efforts to ensure that their chosen terms are widely adopted. Steven Pooled; ‘Unspeak: Words Are Weapons’ 

War Terminology & Origin

 

bomb (n.) 

1580s, from French bombe, from Italian bomba, probably from Latin bombus "a deep, hollow noise; a buzzing or booming sound," from Greek bombos "deep and hollow sound," echoic. Originally of mortar shells, etc.; modern sense of "explosive device placed by hand or dropped from airplane" is 1909. Meaning "old car" is from 1953. Meaning "success" is from 1954 (late 1990s slang the bomb "the best" is probably a fresh formation); opposite sense of "a failure" is from 1963. The bomb "atomic bomb" is from 1945
 

The word bomb originated from French, Italian and Latin (borrowing)The word bomb, previously used to describe a sound (adjective), was used as a noun to describe an explosive (conversion).
Bomb was also used as slang, this is known as (amelioration) as it was used in a positive way. Therefore  there were multiple new meanings of bomb (broadening)

Soldier (n.) 

c.1300, souder, from Old French soudier, soldier "one who serves in the army for pay,"from Medieval Latin soldarius "a soldier" (source also of Spanish soldado, Italian soldato), literally "one having pay," from Late Latin soldum, extended sense of accusative of Latin solidus, name of a Roman gold coin ).

The -l- has been regular in English since mid-14c., in imitation of Latin. Willie and Joe always say sojer in the Bill Mauldin cartoons, and this seems to mirror 16c.-17c. spellingssojar, soger, sojour. Modern French soldat is borrowed from Italian and displaced the older French word; one of many military (and other) terms picked up during the Italian Wars in early 16c.; such as alert, arsenal, colonel, infantrie, sentinel.

Old slang names for military men circa early 19c. include mud-crusher "infantryman," cat-shooter "volunteer," fly-slicer "cavalryman," jolly gravel-grinder "marine." 
(borrowing); based on the French term 'soudier' also meaning someone who serves in the Army. soldier also originated from Latin, Spanish and Italain. the meaning of the word soldier also changes from a roman gold coin.(broadening)

Grenade (n.) 

"small explosive shell," 1590s, earlier "pomegranate" (1520s), from Middle French grenade "pomegranate" (16c.), earlier grenate (12c.), from Old French pomegrenate (influenced by Spanish granada); so called because the many-seeded fruit suggested the powder-filled, fragmenting bomb, or from similarities of shape.

 

Grenade meant pomegranate in French (borrowing). It was then recognised as a small bomb, this is deterioration as it then develops a negative meaning. As the meaning changes the language change can also bee seen as broadening.

 

Army (n.) 

late 14c., "armed expedition," from Old French armée (14c.) "armed troop, armed expedition," from Medieval Latin armata "armed force," from Latin armata, fem. of armatus"armed, equipped, in arms," past participle of armare "to arm," literally "act of arming," related to arma "tools, arms" . Originally used of expeditions on sea or land; the specific meaning "land force" first recorded 1786. Transferred meaning "host, multitude" is c.1500.

the word army again oringinates from the french term 'armee' and the Latin term 'armate'; this is an example of borrowing.

 

 

 

 

http://etymonline.com/ 

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/9700432/The-trench-talk-that-is-now-entrenched-in-the-English-language.html

 

 

 

 

Paragraph from Media Text 

Keep It Simple

During the course of the presidential campaign, Obama kept his main message — “change you can believe in” — simple and memorable.  Obama’s speeches are also known for being direct and assertive. His speeches lack complexity yet he never fails to get his message across. Not only is his short, snappy slogan easy to remember, it symbolises his approach to the issues that America faces; it gives the impression that he aims to resolve these issues quickly and effectively.

Keeping it simple keeps the audience interested and makes your speech more memorable.

Emphasize a Word or Phrase

Dr. David McNeill from the University of Michigan found that Obama also uses his voice admirably. Unlike many other passionate speakers, he: breaks it down, drops his volume, and pauses for impact. At other times he speeds up his pace and raises the volume of his voice to emphasize a key sentence.

CLA : Reading 

Methods 

Phonics; phonics is a systematic approach to teaching children the sounds that make up words.Words are broken down into the sounds they're made up from and then these sounds are 'blended' together to make the word.
So, for example, with 'dog', children learn the sounds the letters d,o, and g make separately and then how they blend to say 'dog'.
Note that it's the sounds the letters make that are important at this stage and not the letter names (i.e. not 'ay', 'bee' as in the alphabet song etc).
Phonics also helps children spell as they can hear the sounds in a word and then translate them back into the letters needed.

An alphabet table using each letter sound.

a ape	a antelope	a armadillo	b bear	c civet	c cat	d deer
e emu	e elephant	f fox	g gerbil	g goldfish	h hippo	i ibis
i inchworm	j jaguar	k kangaroo	l lizard	m monkey	n nightingale	o okapi
o ostrich	p peacock	q quail	r rabbit	s snake	t tiger	u unicorn
u umbrella bird	v vole	w walrus	x ox	y butterfly	y yak	z zebra

Using symbols on top of the following letters will simplify the letter sounds.

The Look and Say Method; With the 'look and say' method children learn to recognize whole words or sentences rather than individual sounds. Children  will look at a word which you sound, and in turn will repeat the sound (the word). Flashcards with individual words written on them are used for this method often accompanied with a related picture.It is also recommended with this method to use whole short sentences rather than individual words. Write a short sentence representing the picture displayed. Say the sentence and ask the child to repeat it while pointing and looking at each individual word as he/she repeats what you said.

By making word cards you can create different sentences again and again. You can use each word card first to learn individual words and then laying the word cards together to form a sentence. You may need to make several word cards using the same word;  e.g. the  -  and   in order to form proper sentences.

The Language Experience Approach; This particular method actually uses children's own words to help them read. They may draw a picture of Dad in the car. In that case you would write underneath the drawing;Dad is in the car. A picture of a playground would read; We went to the park or playground. A picture of a cat could read; The cat sat on the mat. A picture of walking the dog could read; Mum walks the dog to the park.

Views

David Reedy, UK Literacy Association

The teaching of reading should encompass a balance of teaching strategies including a systematic approach to phonics and other word reading strategies, and a significant emphasis on children experiencing a wide range of texts, including moving image and digital - all available to read from the very beginning.

Phonics teaching is an important component of the teaching of reading, but not all words in English are phonically regular (the linguist David Crystal estimates 80% are, but the other 20% contains many of the most common words in English).

Young children need more than phonics to read words accurately. For many very common words in English such as "come", "once", "was", "the", the best method for accuracy is to read them as "sight" words - that is, using the strategy of look and say. In addition, in order to be fully accurate in word reading, we have to use meaning gleaned from the context in many cases, for example "read", "lead", "sow", "close".

Prof Maureen McLaughlin, International Reading Association

Reading is a complex process that involves multiple factors including decoding, integrating background experiences, having purposes for reading, and using skills and strategies to construct meaning. For very young readers, the process begins with issues such as the alphabetic principle and concepts of print. The goal of successful reading is comprehension.

There are five pillars of literacy - phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. All contribute to reading comprehension. Students need ample opportunity to learn, practice, and use these skills. Researchers report that students' construction of meaning is enhanced when they use a repertoire of reading comprehension strategies, including predicting, self-questioning, visualising, monitoring, summarising, and evaluating.

Lisa Morgan, speech and language therapist

Reading effectively for meaning and pleasure involves a complex range of skills, most of which rely on strong speech and language skills - using sounds to decode, knowing how words work together and understanding the vocabulary to gain meaning, for example. We know that children with good oral language skills are likely to become good readers.

In the UK, more than one million children have long-term and persistent speech, language and communication needs (SLCN). We know that these children are at greater risk of literacy difficulties.

Add to this the evidence that highlights that in areas of social disadvantage upwards of 50% of children are starting school with delayed language, then this raises key questions about ways to support children with SLCN to learn to read.

For some children with SLCN, a phonic approach, within a context of focused language enrichment and opportunities, will work well to support their reading development. For others, it absolutely won't. For some, assessing their phonic skills in Year 1 through the phonics screen has been OK. For others, it absolutely hasn't.

benefits of reading 

1. Mental Stimulation

2. Stress Reduction

3. Vocabulary Expansion

4. Memory Improvement

5. Stronger Analytical Thinking Skills

6. Improved Focus and Concentration

7. Better Writing Skills

http://www.lifehack.org/articles/lifestyle/10-benefits-reading-why-you-should-read-everyday.html
http://www.readingrockets.org/teaching
http://www.teachingtreasures.com.au/homeschool/reading-methods/context-support-method.html
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-19812961
http://www.parentdish.co.uk/kids/how-your-child-will-learn-to-read-at-school-and-what-you-can-do-to-help-reading-at-home/

phonological development

children make predictable pronunciation errors (not really 'errors' at all, when you stop to think about it) when they are learning to talk like adults. These 'errors' are called phonological processes, or phonological deviations. 

Phonological Processes in Typical Speech Development

Phonological Process Example   Description   Pre-vocalic voicing car = gar A voiceless sound preceding a vowel is replaced by a voiced sound. Word final devoicing red = ret A final voiced consonant is replaced by a voiceless consonant Final consonant deletion boat = bo A final consonant is omitted (deleted) from a word. Velar fronting car = tar A back sound is replaced by a front sound. Palatal fronting ship = sip sh or zh are replaced b y s or z respectively Consonant harmony cup = pup The pronunciation of a word is influenced by one of the sounds it 'should' contain. Weak syllable deletion telephone = teffone Weak (unstressed) syllables are deleted from words of more than one syllable. Cluster reduction try = ty A cluster element is deleted or replaced. Gliding of liquids ladder = wadder Liquids are replaced by glides. Stopping ship = tip A stop consonant replaces a fricative or affricate. easier sounds ; p, m, h, n, w, b, t, d. more difficult sounds; k, g, f, v, "ng" y,  r, l, s, "ch," "sh," j, "th" http://www.talkingkids.org/2011/04/speech-sounds-and-kids-part-2.html http://linguistlist.org/ask-ling/lang-acq.cfm http://www.education.com/reference/article/stages-language-development-first-words/

Example methodology
Language and technology ; paralinguistic features in text messages; similar age group and social class,possibly in the same friendship group (similar personalities) - compare the graphology patterns. Ethics : permission to use the texts from sender and receiver. Choosing a sample ; every other 5 texts - create the same conversation template and see how participants would respond to  basic questions.